marlier.proFreud's theory of psychological functioning
August 31, 2003
Psychoanalysis is derived from the discoveries of Sigmund Freud. It is the foundation for a general theory of psychology. Although many different theories are derived from Freud’s works, most psychoanalysts subscribe to a few basic concepts which can be summarized by the Determinism, Topographic, Structural, Dynamic and Genetic principles.
Determinism
Freud demonstrates through detailed examples that apparent free choices are most often the result of determinism. Experiences with names, numbers, words and acts are extensively discussed by Freud in his writings (Freud & Brill, 1938).
According to Freud, mental events do not occur haphazard, nor are they the results of free choices, free will; they are rather the results of a mainly unconscious cause to effect processes which stem from past experiences in the life of the individual.
It will not surprise us to find that not only numbers, but also mental occurrences of different kinds of words regularly prove on analytic investigation to be well determined. (Freud & Brill, p. 157).
Freud develops examples of seemingly free choices of some numbers which in reality had a meaning for the individual, like this man sitting in front of a fire and thinking of number 986. He explains that on the hottest day he had ever lived temperature had stood at 98.6º F.
The examples supplied by Freud, though, are somewhat far fetched, especially when one has to make extended calculations to find the meaning of such a number. Our lives are so full of events that one can always find an explanation for anything.
The Topographic Principle
The topographic principle relates to the map of the mind, where all mental elements are judged according to their accessibility to consciousness. A process named repression tends to hide unpleasant or painful mental contents from consciousness by means of a protective layered topography of mental contents. “The topographic aspect distinguishes three components of a mental process: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious...” (Fine, 1962, p. 37).
We could then continue the equation started in the section on determinism: Our present behavior is mainly determined by unconscious mental contents. Unpleasant contents is kept unconscious by the repression process, hence our present behavior is determined by unpleasant mental contents.
In practice Freud thought that his early topographic model was not completely satisfactory, and he evolved to the later id-ego-superego structural theory:
From the point of view of analytic practice, the consequence of this piece of observation is that we land in endless confusion and difficulty if we cling to our former way of expressing ourselves and try, for instance, to derive neuroses from a conflict between the conscious and the unconscious. (Freud, 1927, p. 17)
The Structural Theory
This is Freud’s second model of the mind and the most widely publicized and discussed in specialized literature. In this model, three areas of the mind, the ego, the superego and the id each have their own conscious and unconscious components. This theory has been explained by Freud in The Ego and the Id (Freud).
The id is the reservoir of the biological, instinctual drives with innate and developmental components. Its role is the satisfaction of the individual’s basic sexual and aggressive instincts. It essentially seeks to avoid pain, look for pleasure and immediate gratification.
As a practical example of the exploitation of the need of instant gratification for marketing purposes, I placed an order by phone this morning from a mail order company, and received the following message: “Because pleasure cannot wait, La Redoute delivers your order in 24 hours.”!
The superego is developed during childhood from both innate and acquired influences (the internalized education, expectations of parents and society, religious teachings). It could be compared to the moral conscience. But: “Because the superego represents the uncritical assimilation of parental expectations, it is inaccessible to judgment and intelligence.” (Symonds, 1951, p. 144). It is also more or less autonomous.
The ego acts as the mediator between the id and the superego in order to make life livable: “The ego stands between the demands of the basic drives on the one hand and the demands of the parents (who are representatives of the larger society) on the other.”(Symonds, p. 144). The ego deals with reality. The role of the ego is a difficult one; although it is not sharply separated from the id, it is the pivot of the personality which has to achieve a balance between the basic drives of the id and the tyranny of the superego. The basic drives may vary from individual to individual, and the demands of the superego make the task of the ego more or less difficult. There is always some normal tension between the two, due to the restrictions imposed by society. As an example, a person whose parents were extremely demanding and punitive will in the best of cases feel shame, guilt or frustration as the result of the ego-superego conflict.
The Dynamic Principle
Freud was always concerned with the dynamics of mental events. Freud formulated this principle by differentiating an inner source from an outer source of stimulation. The inner source is that of instincts (drives), the outer source is that of stimuli. The dynamic activity in the mental system consists in the mastering of stimuli as well as of instincts. The psychic system can adapt to the outer source of stimulation (this the autoplastic modification) or alter it (this is close to the stimulus control of the Behavior Therapy and is known as the alloplastic modification) (Alexander, 1961).
The Genetic Principle
Rather than a theory, the genetic principle is an empirical finding of psychoanalysis. It says that early events and fantasies of childhood are never overcome and unconsciously influence the individual’s later personality. “Psychoanalysis aims at the genetic understanding of the patient's complaints. According to Freud, insight into these origins is the primary therapeutic agent.” (Alexander, p. 305). In order to be cured, the patient had to unhide his past experiences buried in his unconscious and even live them again. The reenacting of childhood memories and fantasies in a repetition – rather than recollection alone – process takes the form of the redirection of feelings and desires toward a new object in the course of the psychotherapy and is known as the transference. Transference has to occur during psychotherapy and must be resolved by ending the treatment and as part of it.
Conclusion
Finally, most if not all of the principles which form the theory of personality of psychoanalysis tend to establish that the unconscious governs our conscious lives. This unconscious is made of, on the one side the basic drives of the id, and on the other side forgotten events, and forbiddance and restrictions of assimilated education principles. Freud’s discoveries were mainly empiric, and although he had a scientific background in biology, these findings were supported by little scientific evidence in the few cases he reports in his writings. This rather pessimistic point of view which denies any free will to the individual influenced psychoanalysis after Freud, but each follower has brought her stone to the building which is no longer a monolithic structure but rather a diversified patchwork.
During the years following the death of Freud -- who was the absolute authority in establishing what psychoanalysis was and was not -- important theoretical and technical diversifications have gradually surfaced. Not so long ago these would have been the cause of schisms and painful expulsions, but today they manage to live under one roof, thanks to a certain general acceptance of the pluralism R. Wallerstein spoke of in Montreal in 1987. (Momigliano Nissin, 1992, p. xiv)
August 31, 2003
Psychoanalysis is derived from the discoveries of Sigmund Freud. It is the foundation for a general theory of psychology. Although many different theories are derived from Freud’s works, most psychoanalysts subscribe to a few basic concepts which can be summarized by the Determinism, Topographic, Structural, Dynamic and Genetic principles.
Determinism
Freud demonstrates through detailed examples that apparent free choices are most often the result of determinism. Experiences with names, numbers, words and acts are extensively discussed by Freud in his writings (Freud & Brill, 1938).
According to Freud, mental events do not occur haphazard, nor are they the results of free choices, free will; they are rather the results of a mainly unconscious cause to effect processes which stem from past experiences in the life of the individual.
It will not surprise us to find that not only numbers, but also mental occurrences of different kinds of words regularly prove on analytic investigation to be well determined. (Freud & Brill, p. 157).
Freud develops examples of seemingly free choices of some numbers which in reality had a meaning for the individual, like this man sitting in front of a fire and thinking of number 986. He explains that on the hottest day he had ever lived temperature had stood at 98.6º F.
The examples supplied by Freud, though, are somewhat far fetched, especially when one has to make extended calculations to find the meaning of such a number. Our lives are so full of events that one can always find an explanation for anything.
The Topographic Principle
The topographic principle relates to the map of the mind, where all mental elements are judged according to their accessibility to consciousness. A process named repression tends to hide unpleasant or painful mental contents from consciousness by means of a protective layered topography of mental contents. “The topographic aspect distinguishes three components of a mental process: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious...” (Fine, 1962, p. 37).
We could then continue the equation started in the section on determinism: Our present behavior is mainly determined by unconscious mental contents. Unpleasant contents is kept unconscious by the repression process, hence our present behavior is determined by unpleasant mental contents.
In practice Freud thought that his early topographic model was not completely satisfactory, and he evolved to the later id-ego-superego structural theory:
From the point of view of analytic practice, the consequence of this piece of observation is that we land in endless confusion and difficulty if we cling to our former way of expressing ourselves and try, for instance, to derive neuroses from a conflict between the conscious and the unconscious. (Freud, 1927, p. 17)
The Structural Theory
This is Freud’s second model of the mind and the most widely publicized and discussed in specialized literature. In this model, three areas of the mind, the ego, the superego and the id each have their own conscious and unconscious components. This theory has been explained by Freud in The Ego and the Id (Freud).
The id is the reservoir of the biological, instinctual drives with innate and developmental components. Its role is the satisfaction of the individual’s basic sexual and aggressive instincts. It essentially seeks to avoid pain, look for pleasure and immediate gratification.
As a practical example of the exploitation of the need of instant gratification for marketing purposes, I placed an order by phone this morning from a mail order company, and received the following message: “Because pleasure cannot wait, La Redoute delivers your order in 24 hours.”!
The superego is developed during childhood from both innate and acquired influences (the internalized education, expectations of parents and society, religious teachings). It could be compared to the moral conscience. But: “Because the superego represents the uncritical assimilation of parental expectations, it is inaccessible to judgment and intelligence.” (Symonds, 1951, p. 144). It is also more or less autonomous.
The ego acts as the mediator between the id and the superego in order to make life livable: “The ego stands between the demands of the basic drives on the one hand and the demands of the parents (who are representatives of the larger society) on the other.”(Symonds, p. 144). The ego deals with reality. The role of the ego is a difficult one; although it is not sharply separated from the id, it is the pivot of the personality which has to achieve a balance between the basic drives of the id and the tyranny of the superego. The basic drives may vary from individual to individual, and the demands of the superego make the task of the ego more or less difficult. There is always some normal tension between the two, due to the restrictions imposed by society. As an example, a person whose parents were extremely demanding and punitive will in the best of cases feel shame, guilt or frustration as the result of the ego-superego conflict.
The Dynamic Principle
Freud was always concerned with the dynamics of mental events. Freud formulated this principle by differentiating an inner source from an outer source of stimulation. The inner source is that of instincts (drives), the outer source is that of stimuli. The dynamic activity in the mental system consists in the mastering of stimuli as well as of instincts. The psychic system can adapt to the outer source of stimulation (this the autoplastic modification) or alter it (this is close to the stimulus control of the Behavior Therapy and is known as the alloplastic modification) (Alexander, 1961).
The Genetic Principle
Rather than a theory, the genetic principle is an empirical finding of psychoanalysis. It says that early events and fantasies of childhood are never overcome and unconsciously influence the individual’s later personality. “Psychoanalysis aims at the genetic understanding of the patient's complaints. According to Freud, insight into these origins is the primary therapeutic agent.” (Alexander, p. 305). In order to be cured, the patient had to unhide his past experiences buried in his unconscious and even live them again. The reenacting of childhood memories and fantasies in a repetition – rather than recollection alone – process takes the form of the redirection of feelings and desires toward a new object in the course of the psychotherapy and is known as the transference. Transference has to occur during psychotherapy and must be resolved by ending the treatment and as part of it.
Conclusion
Finally, most if not all of the principles which form the theory of personality of psychoanalysis tend to establish that the unconscious governs our conscious lives. This unconscious is made of, on the one side the basic drives of the id, and on the other side forgotten events, and forbiddance and restrictions of assimilated education principles. Freud’s discoveries were mainly empiric, and although he had a scientific background in biology, these findings were supported by little scientific evidence in the few cases he reports in his writings. This rather pessimistic point of view which denies any free will to the individual influenced psychoanalysis after Freud, but each follower has brought her stone to the building which is no longer a monolithic structure but rather a diversified patchwork.
During the years following the death of Freud -- who was the absolute authority in establishing what psychoanalysis was and was not -- important theoretical and technical diversifications have gradually surfaced. Not so long ago these would have been the cause of schisms and painful expulsions, but today they manage to live under one roof, thanks to a certain general acceptance of the pluralism R. Wallerstein spoke of in Montreal in 1987. (Momigliano Nissin, 1992, p. xiv)
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